SOURCEFORGE » RALF » 2015 Building blocks for a LEO ground station

[[Introduction]]

[[State of Art of the Orbit Propagators]]

[[The Two-Lines Element]]

h2.  Distance elevation and azimuth calculation

h3.    ECI coordinates

The coordinates of the satellite given by the propagator are given in the Earth-Centered Inertial (ECI) coordinate system . This system is a cartesian coordinate system whose origin is located at the center of the earth (at the center of mass to be precise). The z axis is orthogonal to the equatorial plane pointing north, the x axis is pointing towards the vernal equinox, and the y axis is such that the system remains a direct orthogonal system The x and y axis are located in the equatorial plane as shown in the following figure.

!ECI.jpg!

This system is convenient to represent the positions and velocities of space objects rotating around the earth considering firstly that the origin of the system is the center of mass of the earth, and that the system does not rotate with the earth. Indeed, "inertial" means that the coordinate system is not accelerating, therefore not rotating: considering the way the three axis are defined, the system is fixed in space regarding the stars.

The problem here is that our ground is station is located on the surface of the earth, so its coordinates are given in the geodetic coordinate system, which is obviously a system that is rotating with the earth.

We had therefore two options: either calculate the coordinates of the ground station in the ECI coordinate system, or calculate the coordinates of the satellite in the geodetic coordinate system. We chose the first option .

h3. θ(τ) calculation

The main problem to go from the geodetic system to the ECI system is to calculate the angle between the ground station meridian (longitude) and the vernal equinox direction at the time of interest τ. This angle, also called the local sidereal time is a measure of time that depends on the stars, and not on the sun and that is why it is a bit touchy to calculate. For our implementation and tests, we relied on the algorithms and example given in the magazine _Satellite Times_ ,in the column Orbital Coordinate Systems, Part II. θ(τ) is actually defined as the sum between the ground station east longitude and the greenwich sidereal time GST, which is the angle between the greenwich meridian and the vernal equinox that we will note  θg(τ).

θg(τ)can be calculated using the formula:

<pre>

θg(τ) = θg(0h) + ωe·Δτ (1)

</pre>

where Δτ is the number of seconds elapsed since 0h at the time of the calculation τ and ωe = 7.29211510 × 10-5 radians/second is the Earth's rotation rate. θg(0h) is the GST calculated at 0h that day and it is given as:

<pre>

θg(0h) = 24110.54841 + 864018.812866 Tu + 0.093104 Tu2 - 6.2 × 10-6 Tu3 (2)

</pre>

where Tu = du/36525 and du is the number of days of Universal Time elapsed since the julian date 2451545.0 (2000 January 1, 12h UT1). Therefore, to calculate θg(τ), the first thing we need is the julian date of the day, which we can deduce from the julian date of the year as follow:

<pre>

JD = Julian_Date_of_Year() + Number of day since the first of January

</pre>

This calculation is done in the VI julian date.vi where the calculation of the Julian date of the year is done using the Meeus' approach.

Once we had the Julian date, we could calculate du and therefore Tu, and that way we calculated θg(0h) using (2). From there, we were able to calculate θg(τ) using (1) and since we know the east longitude of the antenna, we obtained θ(τ) by a simple sum. Those calculations are done in the VI tetag.vi where θ(τ) is calculated in radians.

h3. Geodetic to ECI conversion

Once we had the local sidereal time, we were able to make the change of system using the following formulas:

<pre>

x=Rcos θ

y=Rsin θ

z=Re sin φ

</pre>

where Re = 6378.135 km, φ is the latitude of the antenna, θ is the local sidereal time and R = Re cos φ

Those calculations are done in the VI _Antenna coordinates ECI.vi_ and x,y,and z are in kilometers.

h3. Distance

Now that we had the coordinates of the ground station in the ECI coordinate system, and since the propagator gives us the coordinates of the satellite, the distance was pretty trivial to calculate. Indeed, as we said before, the ECI coordinate system is a cartesian system, and therefore the distance between two points A(x,y,z) and B(x',y',z') is defined by:

<pre>

d= sqrt((x-x')²+(y-y')²+(z-z')²)

</pre>

We used this formula to calculate the distance satellite to ground station in the VI distance.vi, which is very important to know for the link budget (for the free space loss) as we will see after.

h3. Elevation and azimuth

 The elevation and the azimuth are very important to know as well in order to analyse the satellite link, because if the elevation is too low (below 10 degrees) 

it is not even worth calculating the link budget because the communication cannot be settled.

 The first step for this calculation is to calculate the range vector r, which is defined by:

<pre>

 r = [rx, ry, rz] = [xs - xa, ys - ya, zs - za].

(xa,ya,za) being the antenna ECI coordinates and (xs,ys,zs) the satellite ECI coordinates

</pre>

But r is in the ECI coordinate system which is not adapted for the elevation and the azimuth calculation. Therefore, we had to make another change of coordinates from the ECI to the Topocentric-Horizon Coordinate System that is defined in the figure below. 

!Topocentric-Horizon.jpg!

In the figure, θ is the local sidereal time, and φ is the latitude of the antenna. The new coordinates of the range vector r(Rs,Re,Rz) are therefore defined by  

<pre>

rS = sin φ cos θ rx + sin φ sin θ ry - cos φ rz

rE = -sin θ rx + cos θ ry

rZ = cos φ cos θ rx + cos φ sin θ ry + sin φ rz

</pre>

The range to the satellite is defined by:

<pre>

r = √ [rS2 + rE2 + rZ2]

</pre>

The elevation and the azimuth are then given by

<pre>

El = arcsin(rZ / r)

Az = arctan(-rE / rS)

</pre>

h2. Link budget

h3. Required C/N0 and C/N

 The first step in order to do a link budget is to determine the required Eb over N0 we need to achieve a given BER, for the modulation we are using.

 This value can be obtained by using theoretical curves as shown in the figure below.

!BER_curves.jpg!

For our project, the wanted bit error rate was BER=10-4 and the modulations we considered were BPSK, QPSK and 2-FSK.

Therefore, we researched the theoretical value for these values at BER=10-4 and we implemented it in our code (in the VI _required Eb/N0.vi_). In our project, we haven't considered coding but if we had, we would have had to substract the required Eb/N0 by the coding gain.

Once we had the required Eb/N0, we could calculate the required C/N0 (carrier to noise ratio) using the formula:

<pre>

C/N0=Eb/N0*Rb

</pre>

Rb being the information bit rate 

Knowing the bandwidth of the signal, the C/N can be calculated using:

<pre>

C/N=1/B*C/N0

</pre>

B being the bandwith of the noise but different definition exist. Here we used the bandwith of the RF carrier.

h3. C/N0 calculation

In the project, we only considered an AWGN channel (Additive White Gaussian Noise) and therefore we did not include interference in the link budget. So the formula we used to calculate the total C/N0 is:

<pre>

 (C/N0)t-1 = (C/N0)d-1  +(C/N0)u-1

</pre>

where (C/N0)d and (C/N0)u are respectively the downlink and the uplink carrier to noise ratio.

To calculate those ratios, the only loss we considered was the free space path loss and therefore we did not include the rain attenuation losses , the atmospheric gases attenuation or the depointing of the antenna. The formula we used is therefore:

<pre>

(C/N0)d_dBHz= EIRP_satellite + (G/T)ground -k -Lfspl;

(C/N0)u_dBHz= EIRP_ground + (G/T)satellite -k -Lfspl;

</pre>

where the EIRP is the Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power (in dBW), which is the product of the transmitted gain Gt and the power transmitted to the input terminals of the antenna. We suppose here that the user of the program knows the EIRP of the antenna and of the satellite.

The G/T is called the "figure of merit" where G is the receive antenna gain (in dB) and T is the total system temperature (dBK). We suppose that the user knows as well the G/T of his ground station and of the satellite. If that is not the case, the user can refer to the book _Satellite communications system_ by Gerard Marat and Michel Bousquet to do the calculation or http://www.aticourses.com/sampler/sat_comm_sys_engineering.pdf.

k is the boltzmann constant equal to -228.6 in dBJ.dBK-1.